Essay about case study 3

Antibodies are involved in the immune response. They're made up of two light polypeptide chains and two heavy polypeptide chains bonded together. Antibodies have a variable region which acts in a similar way to the active site of an enzyme. Each antibody has a variable region that is the complementary shape for a particular antigen and

Active immunizing agents stimulate the body to make its own antibodies and to continue on making them, the

binds with the surface IgE and mediators are released (Story, 2012). TH2 cells are involved

When foreign antigens enter the body, chemical signals are dispatched to different parts of the immune system and send it into action.  B lymphocytes produce the antigen specific antibodies.  The antibodies will then attach to the antigen/virus and T lymphocytes will attack the antigen that the antibody has bound itself to.  Once the antigen has been eliminated phagocytes, which are cells that absorb bacteria and other small particles/substances, will come through and absorb the remains of the antigen/infection. In a forensic setting antibodies can also be used to identify an unknown blood/protein. The purpose of this experiment is to use the process of immunoprecipitation to identify an unknown host protein.

They are known as T- Lymphocytes and B-Lymphocytes. B-cells are usually distinguished with humoral immunity because b-cells circulate freely through the lymph system. Whereas T-cells are distinguished by humoral immune response because they act with antigens within other cells. Once these lymphocyte have been produced with the help of bone marrow stromal cells (which are a type of stem cell that is present in red bone marrow) they are released into the blood stream where they travel up to the thymus, and other lymphoid organs. When B-cells, also known as memory cells, leave the bone marrow, they become activated (true b-cells) This process involves the addition of a membrane protein known as immunoglobin M. (IgM) This membrane protein acts a receptor for antigens. Therefore they can said to be the binding site for antibodies. Once an antigen attaches itself to IgM receptor, a signal transduction pathway occurs through tails that descend down into the cells cytoplasm causing them to release antibodies. The second cell type, T-cells, are produced in the bone marrow, through the the same way B-cells are produced. The only difference is they mature in the thymus. This occurs because they undergo genetic recombination of their alpha

IgG antibodies are monomers that provide long-term protection against viruses, bacteria, and toxins by triggering immune protein production cascades and binding to antigens to increase the effectiveness of phagocytosis. The second subclass is the immunoglobulin A (IgA) which are monomers joined together that primarily bind to antigens on microbes before they can invade the tissues. IgA antibodies are found most commonly in mucous membranes (like those lining the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts) and body secretions like breast milk and tears. Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is the third subclass that are large and found mainly in the lymph fluid and blood. Additionally, IgM are involved in the ABO blood group antigens on the outer surface of red blood cells. The fourth subclass is immunoglobulin D (IgD), which are monomers that exist in small amounts. Their function is not entirely known, but they are found in the lymph fluid, the blood, and on the surface of B cells. The last subclass is immunoglobulin E (IgE) which are associated with allergic reactions and are found in the lungs, skin, and mucous membranes. When an antigen binds to this kind of antibody, the mast cell or basophil releases

The antigens in a vaccine are recognized by lymphocytes and lead to development of memory cells.

The TH1 response is cell mediated and promotes inflammation while the TH2 response is an antibody response and anti-inflammatory. When excessive, the TH1 response can cause extensive tissue damage. TH1 responses are characterized by IFN-gamma production. IFN-gamma produces macrophage activity and causes B cells to create a coating of Abs. This creates a cell-mediated response. This is effective against invaders that are inside of the host cells. In a cell-mediated response, the APC phagocytizes the invader via macrophage, monocyte, or dendritic cell. Next, the antigen enters the lymphatic system via lymph node. The APC presents the antigen to T cells where the T cells recognize the antigen and cytokines are secreted to search and destroy

Abbas, A.K., Basic immunology : functions and disorders of the immune system. 4th ed. ed, ed. A.H. Lichtman and S. Pillai. 2014, Philadelphia, PA.: Philadelphia, PA. : Elsevier Saunders.

What are the effector cells for humoral and cellular immunity? What is their effect on immune response?

Main components of the immune system include epithelial barriers, phagocytic leukocytes, dendritic cells, and lymphocytes. The functions are to

Their two primary jobs are to ensure antibody production against the appropriate target antigen occurs and there is presentation of antigen to T cells and signals for T cell activation are provided. B cells provide protection of the host by producing antibodies that identify and neutralize foreign objects like viruses. These B cells then differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells. Plasma cells are terminally differentiated B cells that remain committed to the continuous production and secretion of antibodies. Each plasma will synthesise and secret only one type of antibody. Memory B cells are long-lived B cells that have specialised to remembering the type of substances that the immune system has seen before, they are primed for rapid response to repeated exposure of the antigen. Memory B cells are generated in the lymphoid tissue and migrate to the lymph nodes and reside in the ready mode for activation in order to quickly recognise and attack any returning virus. T cells attack cells that have become infected by viruses, there are two types of T cells the T-helper cell ad the cytotoxic T cell. T-helper cells do not attack infected cells directly, instead they release chemical messengers known as cytokines that signal differentiation, growth and action of other immune cells. Cytotoxic T cells go around in the body looking for and wanting to destroy pathogenic cells directly. Cytotoxic T cells attach to the compromised cell and release chemical factors that are able to kill their targets by programming then to undergo apoptosis. * Dendritic

B cells are a third class of important immune system cells. They do not kill the invaders, but they do tell the killers who to kill. B cells produce specific protein called Antibodies. Each B cell watches out for a particular pathogen and when that pathogen arrives, e B cell begins to produce specific antibodies. Antibodies attach themselves to the specific pathogen so that the killers can recognise that these pathogens need to be destroyed.

In this essay I will explain the processes of immunity, immunisation and the resulted antibody formation due to natural and artificial exposure to antigens.

Immunotherapy is a form of medical treatment intended to stimulate or restore the ability of the immune system to fight infection and disease. This can be by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response. Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while those that reduce or suppress immune response are suppression immunotherapies. Active immunotherapy has been effective against agents that normally cause acute self-limiting infectious disease. However, a more effective immunotherapy for chronic infectious diseases or cancer requires the use of appropriate target antigens; the