While they are similar in many ways, some key differences occur late in the mitotic division. Describe the similarities and differences between the cytokinesis mechanisms found in animal cells versus those in plant cells.
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Oogenesis
The formation of the ovum (mature female gamete) from undifferentiated germ cells is called oogenesis. This process takes place in the ovaries (female gonads). Oogenesis consists of three stages known as the multiplication phase, growth phase, and maturation phase.
Cell Division
Cell division involves the formation of new daughter cells from the parent cells. It is a part of the cell cycle that takes place in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Cell division is required for three main reasons:
While they are similar in many ways, some key differences occur late in the mitotic division. Describe the similarities and differences between the cytokinesis mechanisms found in animal cells versus those in plant cells.
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- In normally dividing cells, once chromosomes have been properly segregated via the steps of mitosis, the two resulting “daughter cells” separate. In animal cells (and other cell types without a cell wall) the contractile ring plays a crucial role in the process of cytokinesis. Exactly how the contractile ring is accurately positioned, so as to be located midway between the two poles (ends) of the dividing cell, is still not fully understood, although factors released from the mitotic spindle are thought to play a role.Regardless of the precise positioning mechanism, one key player in the assembly of the contractile ring is the GTP/GDP binding protein Rho. In its active form, Rho can stimulate the activity of the actin-binding protein formin and (via effects on the myosin regulatory light chain) that of myosin II. Given their respective roles, why might activation of formin and myosin II be beneficial as cells assemble a functional contractile ring structure?In cell cycle, under the control system, explain in details (including roles of related proteins): a) How mitogens trigger transcription of genes for entry into S phase. b) During M phase, how M-Cdk can trigger cohesin dissociation as well as Mad2 triggers mitotic checkpoint to delay metaphase to anaphase transition.Describe the similarities and differences between the cytokinesis mechanisms found in animal cells versus those in plant cells.
- Asymmetric cell division often relies on cytoskeletal elements to generate or maintain the asymmetric distribution of cellular factors. In S. cerevisiae, what factor is localized to the bud by myosin motors? In Drosophila neuroblasts, what factors are localized apically by microtubules?Explain why we can say that M-phase of the cell-cycle is triggered by a positive feedback loop. a) What would the consequences be if cohesins were working normally but condensins were not? and b) what stage of the cell cycle would this cause problems in? Why is it important for the centrosome to duplicate during G1-G2 (interphase) before M phase? The kinetochores serve as a link between the sister chromatids and the microtubules attached to the mitotic spindle. a) How are microtubules still able to exhibit dynamic instability after they are bound to the sister chromatids and b) why is this important to mitosis? As the name suggests, the Anaphase-promoting-complex (APC), promotes the 4th phase of mitosis by separating the sister chromatids so they can travel to separate poles of the cell, and prevents them from being re-zipped together. Describe how APC does these two things (Hint: one involves M-cyclin and the other involves…The assembly and function of the mitotic spindle depend on numerous microtubule-dependent motor proteins. In the mitotic spindle, these motor proteins generally operate at or near the ends of the microtubules. Four major types of motor proteins are:
- Kinetochores control the transition from metaphase to anaphase. Why is this statement true? Question 7 options: a) Anaphase will only begin after the M checkpoint where all the kinetochores and mitotic spindle have correctly attached. b) Anaphase will only begin after the M checkpoint where all the mitotic spindle have correctly formed. c) Kinetochores bind to microtubules in monotelic attachment to the sister chromatids. d) Kinetochores bind to microtubules in syntelic attachment to the sister chromatids. e) Kinetochores will halt at the M checkpoint to weaken the mitotic spindle formation, which is the event that initiates anaphase.During cell division cycle, cells need to monitor the process of DNA replication and segregation of replicated DNA so that these processes are error-free. Some potential errors that could occur include incomplete DNA replication, DNA damage in genome, and uneven separation of replicated genome. These mechanisms that cells used to monitor these processes are referred as the "cell cycle checkpoint, which can control specific Cdk activity to regulate the progression of cell cycle. For the following checkpoint mechanisms, indicate which Cdk activity is attenuated? Also indicate one of the key proteins or protein complexes involved in the following checkpoints. a) DNA damage checkpoint during S-phase b) Mitotic checkpoint during M-phaseWhat are the three types of microtubules involved in the formation of the mitotic spindle? Briefly describe the contribution of each to successful cell division.
- Which of the following is true with respect to cyclins and CDKs? A) CDKs promote progression of the cell cycle, cyclins function to inhibit progression of the cell cycle B) CDKs are the checkpoints in the cell cycle, and when bound to cyclins, they stop progression of the cell cycle C) CDKs will only work to promote progression of the cell cycle when complexed with their designated cyclins D) CDKs are rarely expressed during a cell's cycle, unless cyclins are present to act as transcription factors .The cell cycle control system is a cycling set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle. This is all controlled by growth factors. a) Identify the major checkpoints in a cell and its function. b)Explain the role of the growth factor.In the following study, the investigators wanted to determine the role of cyclin B in controlling the cell cycle. Earlier researchers had found that extracts made from frog eggs (Xenopus) contained all the necessary proteins and machinery required for DNA replication. This included proteins that regulated the mitosis promoting factor (MPF). At the time of this study, cyclin B was show to affect MPF activity and the research group wanted to test using Xenopus egg extract in an assay. In Figure 1 (a) MPF activity was tested for its ability to phosphorylate Histone (H1) in sperm chromatin over a certain period of time. Additionally, the cyclin B concentration in the extract was measured. In figure 1b, the extract was tested after treatment with RNase which degraded only the mRNA and not RNA or FRNA in the extract. Knowing that cyclin B is a short-lived protein, why do you suppose the graph shows the results you see in figure 1b?